PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

AFRICAN PHILOSOPHIES

The development, management, organization and delivery of education and training services in east  africa has been influenced and guided to large extent by africen philosophies.some of these are Harambee philosophy, african socialism, Nyayo philosophy and Education for self-reliance.

Harambee Philosophy

Harambee  is a Kiswqahili word means ‘pulling together’ . Harambee philosophy is founded in tradional custom of mutual social responsibility among Kenyans.tradionally, Kenyans are known come together either as a family or a clan to assist each other in building house, cultivating, planting, harvesting and herding animals.

Kenyans, led by late President Jomo Kenyatta who is the founding father of the nation, formulated the concept known as Harambee.Harambee philosophy sometimes referred as ‘the spirit ofHarambee’ has been and continues to be, an important concerpt to kenyans in carrying out developmental s alongsides the governmental development projects.Harambee is also official motto of Kenya and it appears on the coat of arms.

Harambee as a concept, it has been applied in both  individual and public levels.Over the years it has alsoevolved to mean ‘pooling resources together’. In this case, Kenyanas get together and contribute funds or other materials towards a common goal.Such functions are called harambee’.

Harambees range from informal afairs lasting only few hours in which invitation are spread by word of mouth, to formal, nationally organized events advertized in the mass media.

            Achievement through Harambee include:

·         The construction of nursery, primary and  secondary schools.independent schools were set up in this manner before indipendence to vail Western education to indigenous people.

·         Raising money to send promising students for further satudies abroad,for instance, the airlifts to America and Russia organised by Jaramog odinga and Tom Mboya.

·         In the late 1960s and 70s several day schools were started through the Harambee spirit to avail secondary education to the youth who did not make it to government schools.the costs in these schools were minimal and many parents were able to take thier children to school.Employment opportunities for teachers, clerks,cleaners and watch men were created in this schools.Harambee schools made secondary schools more accassible to girl child.

·         In the 1970s then, Harambee institutes of technologies were built in the provinces to train school leavers in avariety of technical and vocational skills.This was attempt to solve unemployment problems.

·         In the 1980s and 90s, the Harambee spirit was used to develop and equip schools in line with the bcost sharing policy.

·         Needy individuals obtain,and continue to obtain, helps from close friends and family through contributions. Such students are able to attend local and foreign universities or colleges as well as secondary schools.

Inspite of the notable gains,Harambee spirit is marred, by wide spread maltpractice, whi may kill the concept. Such maltpractice includes:

Ø  Forced contributions.

Ø  Misuse and mis bappropriate of funds collected.

Ø  Issuas of bouncing cheques by donors.

Ø  Failurte oby officers or community leaders to account for funds collected.

The Haqrambee spiorit can be exploited further i8n learning situations as follows;

·         Cooperating in shairing ideas through c lass discussions,and other forms of group work.

·         Working together on school project such as farming, control of soil erosion and income generating project.

·         Organising and taking part in walks to raise funds in community.

·         Coorperating in dramma,and other co-curricular activities.                           

African Socialism(Sessional paper No.10 of 1965)

Sessional paper No.10 of 1965 stressed  the importance of African socialism, a term used todescribe a system of political and economic ideals that are positively African, incorporating a useful techniques from  various sources.

African socialism was expected to satisfy three conditions:

·         Draw from the best of african conditions.

·         Adapt to new and changing trends.

POLITICAL DEMOCRACY        

            In many African traditional settings, political democracy prevented any group of people from dominating others. A man was born politically free and equal. His voice and advice was respected and heard regardless of his economic status. Even where traditional leaders appeared to have greater wealth and so hold a lot of political influence over their tribe or clan,  there existed traditional checks and balances against any possibility of abuse of power. An individual needed only to be a mature member to participate full and equally in political affairs. To promote this, the paper suggested that each person or groups of people in Kenya be permitted to take part in the policy making  processes of the state so that the interests of the minority are not ignored.

            African socialism is different from communism. Whereas African socialism is a belief in sharing economic resources in a ‘traditional’ way, communism is an ideology that seeks to establish a classless, stateless social organization based on common ownership of the means of production.

MUTUAL SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

            Mutual social responsibility is an extension of the spirit of African families to the nation as a whole. Mutual social responsibility exists between the society and its members. Therefore, society cannot prosper without the  full cooperation of its members.

            The state has an obligation to ensure equal opportunities for all its citizenry to eliminate exploitation and discrimination, and to provide essential social services such as education, medical care and social security.

VARIOUS FORMS OF OWNERSHIP

            Under colonialism, Kenyans had neither political equality nor economic opportunities and their property rights were not respected. Under African socialism, state and private ownership were encouraged, but the government had to ensure that a few individuals did not become too rich at the expense of everyone else.

A RANGE OF CONTROLS

            Various control measures were put in place to ensure that property was used for the mutual interest of society and its members.

DIFFUSION OF OWNERSHIP

            Diffusion of ownership was meant to check the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few people.

PROGRESSIVE TAXATION

            Progressive taxation was meant to ensure equitable distribution of wealth and income.

The sectionals paper also addressed:

·         Africanization of jobs in both the public and private sectors,

·         Provision of skilled manpower,

·         Foreign exchange – earning and spending,

·         Proper use of domestic resources,

·         Nationalization of schools, hospitals, roads, water supply and major industries, and

·         The establishment of welfare services.

GUIDELINES IN RELAITON TO EDUCATION

            Sessional paper No. 10 of 1965 provided guidelines to shape education in order to achieve the following:

·         To produce good citizens at the end of the seven – year free education course,

·         To meet the needs of economic growth by producing the required manpower,

·         To  promote national unity,

·         To encourage proper use of leisure time,

·         To develop curricular that would meet the governments specified standards, and

·         To produce citizens who could contribute to the development of education through self – help activates.

The following are achievements of sessional paper No. 10 of 1965

·         Education continues to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes that promote social and economic development,

·         Centralization of curriculum development at KIE took place and, through this, the government controls curricula that is used in all public educational institutions below the university.

·         Citizens of Kenya continue to contribute tremendously to the development of education in various areas, especially through the concept of cost sharing.

·         Education continues to promote national unity by for example, teaching Kiswahili, the national language, as an examinable subject. This enables Kenyans to communicate with and understand one another.

NYAYO PHILOSOPHY – EDUCATION FOR PEACE

            Nyayo philosophy is a system of political thought that was introduced by the second president of Kenya, Daniel Arap Moi, in 1978. Moi assured Kenyans that he would follow in the footsteps of the founding father of the nation. In saying this, he meant that he would pursue political and economic plicies similar to those of his predecessor, Jomo Kenyatta. Although nyayo philosophy is based on a Kiswahili word meanings “footsteps” nyayoism came to stand for moi’s statement of his principles.

These principles encompass

·         Peace and love for fellow citizens, and unity. These are necessary for national development. These elements are found in our national anthem. “... may we dwell in unity, peace and liberty.”

·         Being mindful of other peoples welfare. This is principle derived from the African ideology of socialism and nationalism that stresses mutual social responsibility.

·         Faith in God. We should be humble before God and believe in him because we are all his children. Without relying on God, we cannot make meaningful progress.

·         Respect for human dignity. All human beings must be treated with dignity, irrespective of social and economic status.

Nyayo philosophy has led to the following achievements in education:-

·         Introduction of curriculum reforms in response to the need for practical subjects to promote education for self reliance in the 8-4-4 system of education.

·         Expansion of university education by establishing new universities to give more Kenyans opportunism to further their education.

·         Expansion of primary and secondary education by building more workshops and classrooms.

·         Enhancement of educational research to help address challenges in the Kenyan education system.

·         Population control through integration of population and family life studies in the curriculum.

·         Introduction of environmental education in Kenyan schools, colleges and universities, thus encouraging the public to participate in environmental conservation and preservation.

In education, nyayo philosophy can be exploited further in the following ways:-

·         Encouraging teachers to treat all learners as their own children.

·         Encouraging learners to be mindful of other peoples welfare by participating in social responsibility initiatives and by forming clubs and societies that promote peace.

·         Encouraging pupils to join clubs and societies which offer them the chance to serve others. For example, the scout movement and the president’s Award Scheme.

·         Encouraging learners to share resources and knowledge through group activities.

·         Promoting integration of learners with special needs into the education system.

·         Encouraging greater participation of learners in co-curricular activities to promote national unity.

·         Highlighting themes of peace, love and unity when teaching various subjects.

EDUCATION FOR SELF – REALIANCE – UJAMAA

            The philosophy of education for self-reliance was propounded by Mwalimu Nyerere, the first president of the Republic of Tanzania. The underlying principle of this philosophy is that education should produce an individual  who has acquired, not only knowledge and skills, but also social and mental attitudes that will help the individual to be self-sufficient after leaving school. “Education for self-reliance” should also interrogate the pupils with the local community so that they can learn relevant skills from other community members.

            Mwalimu Julius Nyerere, in his Arusha Declaration of 1967, advocated “Education for self-reliance’. This declaration proclaimed war on poverty, oppression and dependency on foreign aid. Nyerere stressed that the country’s development depended on good use of the land, good leadership and intelligent application of individual effort.

            The word he adopted for this concept of self-reliance was Ujamaa, which means brotherhood, or family hood. This principle emphasizes cooperation, equality and self-help in the inherited colonial system. The reasons why Nyerere introduced this philosophy were:-

·         To emphasize cooperation rather than individual advancement.

·         To break the dependence of Tanzania’s development on foreign assistance and control

·         To inculcate a sense of responsibility to the society in the youth.

·         To solve the problem of unemployment for school leavers and university graduates.

·         To discourage access to education only by a select few which would lead to intellectual arrogance or elitism.

·         To redress regional imbalances.

·         To enhance national unity.

‘Education for self – reliance’ was introduced in the following ways:-

·         Ujamaa schools were established and, through them, education was taken to the community. This made it possible for children and members of the community to learn from each other. For instance, craftsmen shared their skills with children, while children made use of community farms to put the  knowledge gained in school into practice.

·         Primary school education curriculum emphasized teaching of the 3Rs with Kiswahili as the medium of instruction.

·         Students had to learn and practice agriculture on the school farm.

·         The content of subjects such as History, Geography, Math’s and Science was changed to incorporate aspect relating to the local environment. Activities such as bee-keeping, poultry farming, animal husbandry, use of fertilizers, tie and dye and carpentry were emphasized.

·         Each school, especially secondary schools, had to contribute to its own upkeep. To achieve this they had to have a farm to grow their own food and a craft workshop to generate income.

·         The entry age for primary school was raised to eight years. This was to ensure that when  children finished their primary schooling, they would be old enough to engage in self – reliance activities.

·         Primary education was considered complete in itself rather than as a foundation for higher education. This was to ensure that they youth could be gainfully self employed rather than seek white collar jobs.

·         Selection to secondary school was based on examination outcome and the teachers reports on the Childs attitudes, initiative and commitment.

·         It was compulsory for all students to join the national youth service for two years before entering university.

THE COMMON MANS CHARTER ON EDUCATION

            The common mans charter on education was document prepared in Uganda after her independence. in many respect, it was similar to education for self reliance in Tanzania.

            In 1970, the then president, the late Dr. Milton Obote, wanted a political change form monarchy and other traditional forms of government which existed then. These were based on either tribal or religious background.

            The common mans charter on education was meant to bring about changes that would make uganda socialistic state. The masses would have to be educated so as to be involved in the election of rulers, and to participate in economic productivity. All the people would have to be regarded as equal regardless of their background, and would share equally in the fruits of their labour.

            Other measures that were to be undertaken to make the system work included:-

·         Nationalization of industries where the Ugandan government was to own 60% of foreign industries

·         Elimination of all practices of corruption such as tribalism and nepotism

·         Establishment of a national youth service programme.

The new system meant that the school curriculum would have to be changed and new one based on a socialistic ideology established.

However, tall these plans and ideas were not implemented because Obotes government was overthrown by Idi Amin Dada.

REVISION QUESITONS

1.      Identify ways through which primary school education helps to promote each of the eight goals of the Kenyan education

(a)    Outline five ways in which primary education tries to realize each of these goals.

2.      Highlight the ideas that have been incorporated in the Kenyan educational system from any three educational thinkers.

3.      Define each of the following terms:-

(a)    Education

(b)   Philosophy

(c)    Philosophy of education

(d)   Education as a process

(e)     Education as a system

(f)    Schooling

4.      State reasons why a teacher should have knowledge on philosophy of education

5.      Show how each of the following philosophies have led to the development of education in Kenya.

(i)                 Harambee philosophy

(ii)               Nyayoism

(iii)             African socialism (sectional paper No. 10 of 1965)

(b)   Identify the characteristics of African socialism as contained in sessional paper No. 10 of 1965

6.      State the functions of education

7.      Show how Kenya is attempting to provide education for self reliance with the introduction of the 8-4-4 system of education.

8.      State two similarities between the common mans charter and education for self reliance

9.      Outline reasons why education for self reliance was introduced in Tanzania.

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

            History is a record of past human events, activities and experiences. It concerns itself with the scientific, social, economic, technological and political development of people.

            Education is a continuous process by which desired knowledge, skills and attitudes are acquired and developed. Through education, one achieves social competence and individual growth.

            History of education is the study of past developments of educational systems, educational  theory and education institutions within the general historical framework of political, social, economic, scientific, technological and cultural changes.

REASONS FOR STUDYING HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The reasons why student teaches should study history of education include:-

·         To improve the quality of education and strengthen professional competence. History of education prepares teaches to explore and critically examine alternative education theories, practices and culture so as to objectively determine what is acceptable.

·         To draw comparisons of different educational ideas and to show the development  of various educational theories and practices in historical context.

·         To cultivate the art of self expression, communication, inquiry, objective thinking and ability to judge what is good or bad.

·         To expose the student teachers to other disciplines such as history. Christian religious education (CRE), oral literature, sociology and psychology from which history of education borrows.

FORMS OF EDUCATION

There are three forms of education. They are:-

·         Formal

·         Non- formal

·         Informal

These form a continuum, each margining into the next, without any clear boundaries.

FORMAL EDUCATION

            When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of gathering food, religious practices, trade and communication, formal education developed.

            Formal education is highly institutionalized. It is a chronologically structured system of education that is hierarchical and runs form primary to tertiary levels.

Some characteristics of formal education are:-

·         The ability to read and write is the means through which knowledge and skills are communicated to the learners.

·         It is conducted in an institution by professionally trained teachers.

·         It has a structured curriculum with well defined goals and objectives

·         Testing and measuring are key to determining promotion to the next class or level.

·         Achievement is recognized through the awarding of certificates.

NON FORMAL EDUCATION

Non formal education is an organized form of education which is provided outside the formal education system. It is seen to be related to concepts of recurrent and lifelong learning. it takes the form of:

·         Adult education

·         On the job training

·         Continuing education

·         Farmers  training

·         Education extension services

·         Distance education

·         Family planning n

·         Literacy programmes.

It is an offshoot of formal education. Its main feature is the provision of relevant skills for the earning of wages or self employment.

It is that form of education that complements and acknowledges the importance of formal education. Within a school set up, it includes co- curricular activities such as clubs and societies.

Some characteristics of non-formal education are:

·         It is less rigid compared to formal education

·         Activities are flexible and therefore adaptable to different situations.

·         The costs are relatively low.

·         It is skills oriented, hence, it serves the immediate needs for employment and increased productivity

·         Performance of leaner’s may be accessed through marks or grades.

·         Certificates to recognize achievement may or may not be awarded.

·         It is content focused though not necessarily time bound

·         It is aimed at meeting the interests and aspirations of specific groups.

INFORMAL EDUCAITON

Informal education is a lifelong process that provides an individual with skills, attitudes, values and knowledge form daily experiences and through social interactions.

Agents of informal education include the family, religious bodies, the media, the state and peer groups. They introduce the learner to the roles and behavior that are  acceptable in society.

·         It is unstructured.

·         Learning takes place unconsciously

·         It is broad based

·         It is often aimed at imparting moral values.

·         It takes place anywhere and at any time.

These definitions of forms of education do not imply the existence of hard and fast categories. There may be some overlap, particularly between non formal and informal forms of education.

TRADITONAL AFRICAN EDUCATION

            Before the introduction of western civilization in Africa, education in the continent was based on practical methods of teaching and learning it was purely indigenous.

The following are some characteristics of traditional African education:-

·         Wholistic and utilitarian it was functional and stressed participation and application to meet societal needs.

·         Authoritarian the young were expected to accept adult instruction and directions without question.

·         Universal every child was entitled to access to education without any inhibitions.

·         Ritual oriented each terminal level of learning was marked by certain initiation rituals or ceremonies which were referred to as rise of passage.

·         Communalism individuals were taught to work and live as members of the community.

·         Conservative it was aimed at the preservation of culture.

·         Informal knowledge was committed to memory and then passed on orally and through practical demonstrations.

·         Promotion form one level to the next was automatic

·         All adults acted as teachers. Peers also participated in teaching.

·         It emphasized character training and moral development.

·         Respect for authority was inculcated in individuals.

·         It led to the development of intellectual skills and the power to integrate experiences through use of speech, poetry and songs.

Although Christian missions have influenced education in Kenya, elements of African  indigenous education are still being practiced today.

HOW TRADITOANL AFIRCAN EDUCAITON WAS CONDUCTED

            Although traditional African societies had no literacy or formal schooling, they had basically organized education systems where the system of each ethnic group had its own distinctive features which reflected its lifestyle and culture.

            The education of a newborn baby was the responsibility of the mother. After weaning, the child interacted with other members of the family. The child was encouraged to develop physically by being assisted to sit, crawl, stand and walk. The child was also assisted to develop language.

            The child was provided with moral education and was made to conform to the modes, customs and standards of behavior of the clan he or she was born into. Habits and undesirable behavior were discouraged through punishment. The child was taught precautionary measures against fire, suffocation, accidents and evil glances.

            In childhood, games were considered crucial for mental and physical development. Boys were formally introduced to knowledge and skills related to agriculture, hoarding, hunting and gathering. They were also introduced to a trade or occupation practiced by the clan, such as metalwork or hide tanning.

            Girls helped in the kitchen, fetched water and firewood and took care of their younger siblings. In some clans, they were introduced to trades such as basket weaving and pottery.

            These activities enabled the children to develop physical endurance skills and a good memory. They also formed a basis for social and economic support to each child, ensuring that the child played an important role in the family as well as in the community.

            As young girls advanced in age, they executed their role in the company of women. The boys assumed more responsibilities with peers and men.

            With time, children came to learn collective discipline and self-discipline, and undertook duties meant for their age. Thorough interaction with members of their community, children  learnt good manners, respect for elders and various beliefs that affected their everyday life.

            In late childhood, between the ages of ten and fourteen, children developed abstract thought and reasoning. They became more involved in productive activities and were also given more responsibilities in the family. At the same time, they improved their apprenticeship in some occupations. During adolescence, form the age of fifteen, boys and girls were initiated into adulthood. Educational activities centered on physical exercises,  sex education, training in adult responsibilities and the harmonious acceptance of the child into the community.

            The boys went through an intensive period of training and were subjected to physical and moral tests aimed at molding their character, developing their spirit of companionship and rendering them capable of facing hardships in life. In view of this, most communities which practiced circumcision deliberately made it a very painful experience. During initiation, both theoretical and practical knowledge was impacted by elders. General rules of behavior and etiquette were stressed and initiates were warned against undesirable behavior such as incest, adultery, assault and theft. After this, the initiates graduated into a new life as adults.

SCOPE AND CONTENT OF TRADITONAL AFRICAN EDUCATION

            The content of traditional African education was determined by the physical and social environment of the child. Children learnt how to utilize the physical environment for economic benefit. They learnt how to survive  and overcome the dangers in the environment. They learnt agriculture, pastoralist, fishing, hunting, gathering and crafts. Form the social environment, the children learnt good manners and the laws of the society. The history of the clan or ethnic group, especially its heroes, songs, stories, oral traditions, customs and beliefs, was also learnt. The children learnt many things  through activities such as initiation, birth, war, harvest and religious ceremonies. Riddles, proverbs, poems and lullabies were also a source of knowledge.

METHODOLOGY

            The methods of instruction in traditional African education were both informal and formal. Children learnt through fold songs, stories, riddles, proverbs, dances, ceremonies and festivals, prohibitions, poems, practical activities and observation. All these contributed to the children’s intellectual, spiritual and moral development.

            The indigenous system of education prepared children to be important and useful members of households, villages, communities and hence, the ethnic groups. Girls were brought up future housewives and mothers, while boys were brought up as future fathers and leaders.

ISLAMIC EDUCATION

            Islamic education in Africa started in centers such as Basra, Baghdad, Cairo and Cordova long before the western world established higher centers of learning. These centers started as religious schools. Later, they developed into universities.

            Islam encouraged literacy to enable the use of the Koran, which is the Muslim book of revelation, and the hadith, which refers to the gradation of prophet Mohammed in written form. Islamic education required that one should learn how to read. The basic Islamic literature was written in Arabic and therefore, knowledge of the Arabic language was crucial.

            The philosophical foundation of Islamic education is the acquisition of knowledge. Knowledge and will are two qualities which Muslims believe make human begins distinct from other creatures.

Muslims differentiate two types of knowledge. These are:-

·         Revealed knowledge, which refers to knowledge revealed to prophets by God and passed on to human beings.

·         Acquired knowledge, which refers to knowledge acquired by human beings through their own effort.

Although the main purpose of knowledge is to facilitate the worship of God, the two categories of knowledge are considered to be important. The acquisition of knowledge is a religious duty and is obligatory among the Muslims regardless of gender, race or social class. Muslims are encouraged to seek knowledge form the cradle to the grave, that is a lifelong education. Islamic recognizes both religious and secular sources of knowledge. Muslims are, therefore, encouraged to acquire knowledge from any source around the world.

AIMS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

Islamic education aims at:-

·         Moral and spiritual training – although Islamic education looks at physical, mental, scientific and practical aspects, more emphasis is laid on moral training. Muslim educators aim at refining morality.

·         Instilling appreciation of secular issues in life- Islamic education is also concerned with the material aspects of life. Muslim philosophers studied sciences, literature and arts. These subjects are seen as important both in the acquisition of a livelihood and in strengthening moral character.

·         Promoting vocational and industrial education – the study and practice of various professions, arts and trades helps on to earn a livelihood. It is expected that